Defiance

Defiance

At the turn of the twentieth century, German women faced legal and social re­strictions that re­inforced male authority and limited women’s rights to marry, work, and study. Jewish women en­countered additional struggles: they were sub­jected to rising antisemitism and dis­crimination, which reduced their opportunities both professionally and socially. Jewish women designers often challenged conser­vative attitudes within Jewish cultural circles, and fought for change, represen­tation, and professional oppor­tunities for all women.   

Fig.: poster Die Frau in Haus und Beruf, printed by Hollerbaum & Schmidt, Berlin, 1912; bpk / Kunstbibliothek, SMB / Dietmar Katz

Trailblazers

After the revolts of 1848, German women in­creasingly challenged social, ideo­logical, and legal barriers to women’s equality. There are many untold stories of women breaking social con­ventions long before they had the right to vote or to own property. These show how individual women became the sole bread­winners for their families, or lived independent single lives, thanks to their ingenuity and resilience. Emma Trietsch and Franziska Bruck were two such Jewish women from Eastern Europe, who settled in Berlin at the turn of the twentieth century.   

You can find more information about Emma Trietsch and her works in our online collection (in German).

Fig.: Emma Trietsch, oval beaded bag, wood, metal, cotton, Berlin ca. 1909-1933; Jewish Museum Berlin, donation by Allon Haymov, photo: Roman März

Design Education

Women were not ad­mitted to most art academies in Germany until 1919, which severely limited their opportunities for careers in design. Some insti­tutions offered vo­cational courses for young women, the Lette Verein in Berlin being one of the most important. As Jewish families had a high regard for education, their daughters were en­couraged to pursue their talents and their numbers were dispro­portionately high in art institutions. Religious Jewish women did not attend secu­lar institutions that held classes on Shabbat, when no work is permitted.  

Fig.: poster of the Reimann School, design: Julius Klinger, print: Hollerbaum & Schmidt, Berlin, 1911; bpk / Kunstbibliothek, SMB / Dietmar Katz

Excerpt from an oral history interview with Marguerite Friedlaender-Wildenhain,  14 March 1981, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution; production: audioberlin

The complete audio and transcribed version are available for free on the website of the Archives of American Art (Smithsonian Institution).

Learn more about Marguerite Friedlaender-Wildenhain in our online feature about Jewish female designers of the early twentieth century. 

Commodity Cosmos

The Weimar Republic was a period of rapid change, and a modern consumer economy became one of its defining features. A growing interest in interior design and modern house­wares created more oppor­tunities for product designers. A number of Jewish women were at the forefront of this new wave of design, running small home businesses, designing for manu­facturers, or working in family firms. They responded to the demand for both modern secular products and Jewish ritual items. Those who worked from home often sold from home as well.    

You can find more information about Rahel Ruth Sinasohn and her works in our online collection (in German).

Fig.: Rahel Ruth Sinasohn, Misrach, Dresden, 1920 - 1928; Jewish Museum Berlin, Photo: Roman März

Fashioning Identity

As fashion designers, illustrators, and boutique owners, Jewish women were instru­mental in creating a modern visual culture with bold ideas about female self-represen­tation. The “New Woman” was a figure of the popular imagination, repre­senting a changing idea of femi­ninity. Featured in magazines and advertise­ments at a time when print culture was growing rapidly, she was an aspirational role model: a single, professional, emanci­pated woman who made daring fashion choices. By communi­cating fashion in a variety of ways, Jewish women became German taste­makers.   

Fig.: The elegant couple, Franziska Schlopsnies, probably Munich, 1926; Mr. and Mrs. de Vries-Lukszo

Livelihood

It was difficult for a woman to earn a sustain­able living from her craft without the additional financial support of a parent or husband. Never­theless, many Jewish women took steps to build professional careers and were able to support themselves modestly and live inde­pendently. The expanding world of adver­tising offered new possibilities, and work for graphic designers could also be found in poster design, book design, and typo­graphy. Women who were primarily non-commercial, fine artists found that they could supple­ment their income with graphic design work.  

You can find more information about Käte Wolff and her works in our online collection (in German).

Fig.: Not just a silhouette artist! Käte Wolff, from: Unsere Reklamekünstler: Selbstbekenntnisse und Selbstbildnisse, Verein der Plakatfreunde e.V., Berlin, 1921; Jewish Museum Berlin, photo: Roman März

The Jewish Play­room

As pro­gressive educational reform began to take hold in Germany, teaching materials were adapted to meet children’s needs more closely. Jewish communities saw their members drift away from religious life and came to recognize the importance of de­veloping a children’s culture that fostered Jewish identi­fication and self-confidence. Jewish women took a leading role in this niche market, creating child-friendly educational materials and illu­strating children’s books. They also became entre­preneurs, marketing and selling their products through the Jewish press, women’s organizations, and exhibitions.  

You can find more information about Tom Seidmann-Freud and her works in our online collection (in German).

Fig.: Tom Seidmann-Freud, illustration for Die Fischreise, ink and watercolors on parchment paper, Berlin 1923; The Collection of Tom's Grandchildren

Reading from Das jüdische Bilderbuch: Bilder Verse mancherlei, Auch viel Jüdisches dabei (The Jewish picture book) by A. Maier with illustrations by Adele Sandler, Jüdischer Volksschriften-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1910?; speaker and production: audioberlin; Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, call number: Res/4 81.12232 

Adele Sandler illustrated this first German picture book for young Jewish children. The book depicts several Jewish festivals and is imbued with religious concepts and values, such as doing good deeds (mitzvot). In the book, Jewish religious life and secular German culture are interwoven: Jews also enjoy sledding in the snow. 

You can find a digital copy of the book on the website of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (in German). 

Fig.: Das jüdische Bilderbuch: Bilder Verse mancherlei, Auch viel Jüdisches dabei (The Jewish picture book) by A. Maier with illustrations by Adele Sandler, Jüdischer Volksschriften-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1910?; speaker and production: audioberlin; Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, call number: Res/4 81.12232 

Restriction, Margi­nalization, Upheaval

When the Nazis came to power in 1933, there were over 500,000 Jews living in Germany, out of the total popu­lation of 65 million. Jews now faced restrictive laws and job losses, leading to precarious economic conditions. They were segre­gated and ousted from cultural life. Jewish artists of all kinds were left without a source of income. Some Jews responded by creating an independent Jewish cultural sector, or by organizing vocational courses, such as handi­crafts and nursing, to provide practical skills for those who hoped to emigrate.   

Fig.: Postcard from the Handwerkskammer Berlin (Berlin Chamber of Crafts and Trades) notifying Frieda Behrend (1907–1990) of her professional ban, Berlin, 27 Dec 1938; Jewish Museum Berlin, donation Klaus Behrend

The postcard reads:

“On the basis of the decree on the elimination of Jews from German economic life of November 12, 1938 and the implementing decree issued in this connection on November 23, 1938, we will delete you from the register of craftsmen with effect from January 1, 1939 and hereby request that you return your craftsmen's card immediately, at the latest by December 31 of this year. / Lohmann / President”

You can find the digital copy of the document in our online collection. 

Into the Dark

The Nazi regime used violence and economic pressure to en­courage Jews to leave Germany of their own accord, but not everyone had the means to do so. Some chose to stay in order to care for vulne­rable relatives, others sent their children to safety overseas. Some went underground. Many committed suicide. In October 1941, Jewish emigration from Germany was officially prohibited. Mass depor­tations to concen­tration camps began shortly afterwards, and the vast majority of Jews who remained in Germany were murdered.  

Fig.: Farewell letter from Paula Straus to Juliana Maria Tannenbaum and “ihr andren 3” (“the other 3”, namely, the Tannenbaum family), Haigerloch, 15. Aug 1942; Jewish Museum Berlin, donation of Evelyn Grill-Storck in memoriam of Prof. Dr. Joachim Wolfgang Storck

Please note: Individual phrases in the following transcription were care­fully adapted to the new German spelling rules and translated into English to improve read­ability for the audio recording. A faithful trans­cription of the letter can be found on this page (in German). 

The letter reads:

“Dear Maria and the other 3 of you, now it's our turn, on Wednesday we’re off. Of course, we have a lot to do with all the elderly, some of them sick. No-one will have much time to take care of themselves on top of that the elderly, and organizing the food daily. And then there's the rest. The prospects are worse than bad – no-one there who we can still write to. Hopefully we can write to you, we'll try, but will it get through? And we can't really communicate. We'll know how things are, how we are, and that no-one can help us, and that we're not allowed to write, and if so, that no-one is allowed to send us anything.  

I am enclosing Liebel's letters for you to keep. I will also give you the following address as a contact and to whome I will write if we can. It's a private mixed marriage like yours: Dr. Rudolf Schottländer, Berlin-Heiligensee. Schulzendorferstr. 34. Liebel's address: Diplom Ingenieur V. Liebel, Krasnystaw Kreis Lublin, Generalgouvernement, Kreistr. 14.  Though I am not at all hopeful that I will be able to write. But we will try. So, dear ones, when will you hear from us again? And about what? And when will we see each other again if at all?  

We are enclosing Lilly's letter, which we recently received, and which made us very happy. Farewell. I wish you, dear Belein, all the best and that all your wishes come true, may you be happy with your Gerhard. And you, dear Herbert, I hope you don't have to go through too much, that would make me sad and there are enough other victims. We will certainly starve and freeze. I doubt very much that we will make it. Mother is old and I'm not very strong. I am not all that hopeful. Dear Mariechen, don't be sad, you are brave, and you know how much I love you and how much I miss you all.  

Yours, Paula 

Farewell letter from Paula Straus to Juliana Maria Tannenbaum and “ihr andren 3” (“the other 3”, namely, the Tannenbaum family), Haigerloch, 15. Aug 1942; speaker and production: audioberlin; Jewish Museum Berlin, donation of Evelyn Grill-Storck in memoriam of Prof. Dr. Joachim Wolfgang Storck

New Realities

Jews desperately sought visas from any country that would accept them, including the United States, Britain, and British Mandate Palestine – with the added pressure of increasingly restrictive immi­gration policies. Whatever their destination, refugees faced common difficulties, and starting over was a huge struggle. They left behind family, language, financial stability, status, and their business and social networks. Yet, deter­mined women with transferable design skills had a chance of earning a living, however modest.  

You can find more information about Irene Saltern and her works in our online collection.

Fig.: Irene Salinger (formerly: Saltern), costume design for Margaret Sullavan as Ruth Holland in the film “So Ends our Night” (black dress), Los Angeles, 1941; Jewish Museum Berlin, donated by Tom and Lynda Salinger